Tourism Policy and Strategy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Tourism Policy and Strategy - Assignment Example The British tourism industry also faces challenges. David Coleman summarised the problems now facing British countryside as changes to the scenery, e.g. with fewer animals, lack of investment in the countryside and its infrastructure, fewer countryside activities, such as events and shows and lack of enthusiasm from businesses and people. He cited that the local authorities can assist by working with the industry, reviewing the rural infrastructure, e.g. by ensuring temporary footpath closure signs are removed, promoting support for businesses and taking a positive attitude towards planning issues and rural development. ("Working for the Countryside". The growth of international and domestic tourism has been matched by a corresponding increase in the numbers of those who study tourism and its impacts. Indeed, it may even be said that tourism research is one of the academic growth industries of the late twentieth century. A specific example of tourism research is Tomorrow's Tourism To day or Tourism Prospectus. This Prospectus outlines plans for action and responsibilities for delivery for the Department of Culture, Media and Sports (DCMS) and its key partners in five areas. ... (Tomorrow's Tourism Today). The industry is aiming for an industry turnover of 100 billion as a minimum by 2010. The British tourism industry also faces challenges. David Coleman summarised the problems now facing British countryside as changes to the scenery, e.g. with fewer animals, lack of investment in the countryside and its infrastructure, fewer countryside activities, such as events and shows and lack of enthusiasm from businesses and people. He cited that the local authorities can assist by working with the industry, reviewing the rural infrastructure, e.g. by ensuring temporary footpath closure signs are removed, promoting support for businesses and taking a positive attitude towards planning issues and rural development. ("Working for the Countryside").

Case study Ice-Fili Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ice-Fili - Case Study Example In addition, emergence of a large number of domestic producers also contributed to the market share erosion of the firm in the recent years. Russian ice cream market has also declined over the last decade. The company gave primary focus to product quality and therefore it continued to use natural ingredients while foreign manufacturers widely used chemical preservatives to increase the durability of their ice cream products. This approach not only assisted the foreign players to make their products durable, but also aided them to reduce the costs. Thus they obtained competitive advantages over the traditional players like Ice-Fili. In total, the company’s traditional product policies also played a crucial role in reducing its dominance in the Russian ice cream market. The case study indicates that Russian ice cream market exhibits strong seasonal fluctuations. The country’s ice cream consumption normally reaches at its peak during the summer season. The Russian ice cream consumption has notably declined by the early 21st century as compared to other developed economies like the United States, France, and Canada. Regional Russian producers do not give much emphasis to the promotion of ice cream products and this adverse situation keeps the country’s ice cream industry down despite the high level affordability of ice cream products in Russia. As Rukstad Wells and Yin, point out, beer, soft drink, and confectionary industries take advantages of this favorable situation (To illustrate, the production of beer was up 23%, soft drinks 25%, and confectionaries 8% in 2000 whereas the production of ice cream was down 3.5% in the same period as compared to the previous year) which in turn worsen the growth of Russian ice cream industry. Degree of competitive rivalry is very high in Russian ice cream industry. The exhibit

Sociological perspective Essay Example for Free

Sociological perspective Essay Marxism, Functionalism and Feminism are sociological theories alongside several others, they are fundamental to the whole discipline of sociology. Functionalism is a structural theory they argue that society is made up of interrelated and interdependent institutions such as education, work, religion, law, the family etc. The main function of these institutions is to maintain social equilibrium. They see society similar to a human body with all the internal parts working together to bring out equilibrium. Functionalists see individual action as the product of social institutions such as the family and education socializing the young into cultural values and norms, this means people believe in much the same thing and consequently their actions and patterns are predictable. Durkheim believed the very core of society is it values which are passed on and reinforced by family, school religion etc. Individuals behave similarly in the same social context because they have been socialized into the same cultural rules and goals. However Functionalist see institutions such as education and work organizations allocating people to roles in which they would make an effective contribution to the day to day running of society, they believe there is a class system and people gain their job, money etc through their own merit. Therefore functionalists believe human action is shaped and controlled by social forces such as value consensus and the need to maintain social order, beyond the individuals control , they results on this conformity is social stability and the reproduction of society generation by generation. However it is argued that functionalists over emphasis consensus and order, and play down conflict. They tend to focus on functions or benefits of social institutions and consequently neglect the dysfunctions or harm that institutions can cause. Marxism is a macro approach based on a conflict between capital and wage labour. Society splits into an infrastructure (economic base) and  superstructure (social institutions). Ideology (distorted beliefs) is transmitted through the superstructure to justify inequalities. Marx focused on the inequalities of capitalism. In capitalist society, the bourgeoisie own the means of production (own large amounts of capital and therefore have power), whereas the proletariat sell their labour power for a wage. This is where the conflict rests. The system dictates that the ruling class generates more profit (achieved by decreasing wages). Overtime, the worsening of conditions, exploitation and lowering of wages results in a situation where the working class become aware of their class position and unite in a state of revolutionary consciousness. Revolution is, therefore, inevitable. Gramsci argues that middle class maintain dominance by using the government to persuade people, and also by propagating ideologies ( continuously feeding ideas so dey grow strength through things like media, churches, schools and family in order to win peoples consent. For the middle class to be ideologically dominant these ideologies need to be tied in to the popular culture of working class. The extent to which such hegemony is achieved varies over time but its unlikely 2 ever be complete. There are two reasons for dis. firstly middle class are often divided and secondly the proletariat as a dual consciousness. One part which reflects the ideas of the middle class and the other which reflects their everyday experiences. He believes the proletariat to make alliances with other groups for Marxists to win the hearts and minds of subordinate classes by connecting Marxist ideas to popular culture. Hes optimistic that the struggle for hegemony. People will eventually be persuaded of the need for a revolution. For Frankfurt school theirs two main characteristics which distinguish humans from animals- the ability to transform the environment and the ability to make a rational decision about our lives. Capitalists societies dont allow humans to exercise their creativity and reason and thus warrant criticisms 4 being unfair n unreasonable. He agrees with Gramisci that attention needs to  be paid to ideologies which are integrating people into capitalists system. Two developments are highlighted as crucial here- the growth on instrumental reasons whichs seen as the dominant way of thinking in a capitalist society and the development of mass culture. Peoples acceptance of instrumental reasons is explained by Frankfurt school in terms of developments of mass culture. It reached the mass of population through media The Frankfurt school comes to a negative conclusion- people are dominated not only at work but also in their leisure. The over riding picture is of society as a mass of isolated individuals who are manipulated by big business. Their seems to be no way out. It has been argued that Marxists put too much emphasis on conflict. Capitalism has improved the standard of living working class. It may be that the working class are aware of inequality and exploitation but they feel that their standard of living compensates for this. So they may therefore actively choose to go to work despite this knowledge. They have also been criticized for economic reductionism i.e. reducing behaviour to class relationships. They may neglect the fact that social behaviour can also be influenced by religious, patriarchal, nationalism and ethnic structures. Interactionalists focus upon the way in which individuals (or social actors as Interactionists like to call them) consciously act rather than simply react to social stimulation. The way in which different social actors interpret the behaviour of others is significant as a means of understanding the way in which the world is socially constructed. This social construction of the world is focused upon the meanings people give to behaviour and the way in which they interpret the meaning of behaviour. Mead argued that whilst we are each conscious, thinking, individuals, the way in which we choose to behave is conditioned by the social context of that behaviour. In this, he said that our behaviour as individuals is conditioned by two aspects of our self-awareness (that is, the ability to see ourselves as others see us). A) The I aspect which largely consists of spontaneous actions and B) The Me aspect which consists of an awareness  of how other people expect us to behave at any given moment. The I and the Me are parallel parts of what Mead called The Self and it is the ability of human beings to develop a self-concept that makes us different to most animals. In animals, for example, the I is dominant (to the almost total exclusion of the Me in most animals). This means, in effect, that most animal behaviour is instinct-based rather than socially-constructed. In humans, on the other hand, the reverse is true. The Me is dominant to the almost total exclusion of the I. This means, in effect, that most human behaviour is socially-constructed rather than instinct-based.

The Importance Of Determining A Plant Location

The Importance Of Determining A Plant Location The location of a plant or facility is the geographical positioning of an operation relative to the input resources and other operations or customers with which it interacts. Andrew Greasly (2003) identified three main reasons why a location decision is required. The first reason is that a new company has been created and needs a facility to manufacture products or deliver a service to its customers. The second reason is that there is a decision to relocate an existing business due to a number of factors such as the need for larger premises or to be closer to a particular customer base. The third reason is relocate into new premises in order to expand operations. Decisions with regards to where an organisation can locate its plant or facility are not taken often, however they still tend to be very important for the firms profitability and long-term survival. An organisation which chooses an inappropriate location for its premises could suffer from a number of factors, and would find it difficult and expensive to relocate. Location decisions tend to be taken more often for service operations than manufacturing facilities. Facilities for service related businesses are usually smaller in size, less costly, and are located in a location that is convenient and easily accessible to customers (Russell and Taylor, 2003). When deciding where to locate a manufacturing facility different reasons apply, such as the cost of constructing a plant or factory. Although the most imporant factor for a service related business is access to customers, a set of different criteria are important for a manufacturing facility (Russell and Taylor, 2003). These include the nature of the labor force, proximity to suppliers and other markets, distribution and transportation costs, the availability of energy and its cost, community infrastructure, government regualtions and taxes, amongst others (Russell and Taylor, 2003). Location Strategy The facilities location problem is one of major importance in all types of business. It is important to notice the different problems that may arise whilst trying to choose a suitable location. Normally, the decision on siting proceeds in two stages: in the first, the general area is chosen; and then a detailed survey of that area is carried out to find suitable sites where the plant or facility could be located (Muhlemann, Oakland and Lockyer, 1992). However, the final decision as to where to locate a facility is made by taking into consideration more detailed requirements. The following are a number of factors which might influence the choice of location (Muhlemann, Oakland and Lockyer, 1992). Proximity to market: organisations may wish to locate their facility close to their market, to be able to lower transportation costs, and most importantly, to be able to provide their customers with a better service. If the plant or facility is located close to the customer, the organisation would be in a better position to provide just-in-time delivery, to respond to fluctuations in demand and to react to field or service problems. Availability of labour and skills: a number of geographical areas have traditional skills but it is very difficult for an organisation to find a location which has the appropriate skilled and unskilled labour, both readily available and in the desired quantities. Even so, new skills can be tought, processes simplified and key personnel moved from one area to another. Availability of amenities: organisations would prefer to locate their facilities in a location which provides good external amenities such as housing, shops, community services and communication systems. Availability of inputs: a location which is near main suppliers will help to reduce cost and allow staff to meet suppliers easily to discuss quality, technical or delivery problems, amongst others. It is also important that certain supplies which are expensive or difficult to procure by transport should be readily available in the locality. Availability of services: there are six main services which need to be considered whilst a location is being chosen namely; gas and electricity, water, drainage, disposal of waste and communications. An assessment must be made of the requirements for these, and a location which provides most or all of these services will be more attractive than another which does not. Room for expansion: organisations should leave room for expansion within the chosen location unless long term forecast convey very accurately that the plant will never have to be altered or expanded. This is often not the case and thus adequate room for expansion should be allowed. Safety requirements: certain production and manufacturing units may present potential hazards to the surrounding neighbourhood. For example certain plants such as nuclear power stations and chemical factories should be located in remote areas. Site cost: the cost of the site is a very important factor, however it is necessary to prevent immediate benefit from jeopardising the long-term plans of an organisation. Political, cultural and economic situation: it is also important to consider the political situation of potential locations. Even if other considerations demand a particular site, knowledge of the political, cultural and economic difficulties can assist in taking a number of decisions. Special grants, regional taxes and import/export barriers: it is often advantegous for an organisation to build its plant or facility in a location where the government and local authorities often offer special grants, low-interest loans, low rental or taxes and other grants. Location Selection Techniques The location selection process involves the identification of a suitable region/country, the indentification of an appropriate area within that region and finally comparing and selecting a site from that area which is suitable for an organisation. The following are a number of analytical techniques from the several that have been developed to assist firms when choosing a location. Weighted Score The weithed scoring technique tries to take a range of considerations into account, including cost (Greasly, 2006). This technique, which is also referred to as factor rating, consists of determining a list of factors that are relevant to the location decision. Each factor is then given a weighting that conveys its importance compared with the other factors. Each location is then scored on each factor and this score is multiplied by the factor value. The alternative with the highest score is then chosen (Greasly, 2006). Locational Break-Even Analysis This technique makes use of cost-volume analysis to make an economic comparison of location alternatives. An organisation would have to identify the fixed and variable costs and graphing them for each location, thus determining which one provides the lowest cost. Locational break-even analysis may be carried out mathematically or graphically. The procedure for graphical cost-volume analysis is as follows (Falzon, 2009): Determine the fixed and variable costs for each location. Plot the total cost (i.e. the fixed + the variable) lines for the location alternatives on the graph. Choose the location with the lowest total cost line at the expected production volume level. 2.1.2 Plant Layout According to Andrew Greasly (2007), the layout of a plant or facility is concerned with the physical placement of resources such as equipment and storage facilities, which should be designed to facilitate the efficient flow of customers or materials through the manufacturing or service system. He also noted that the layout design is very important and should be taken very seriously as it can have a significant impact on the cost and efficiency of an operation and can involve substantial investment in time and money. The decisions taken with regards to the facility layout will have a direct influence on how efficiently workers will be able to carry out their jobs, how much and how fast goods can be produced, how difficult it is to automate a system, and how the system in place would be able to respond to any changes with regards to product or service design, product mix, or demand volume (Russell and Taylor, 2003). In many operations the installation of a new layout, or redesign of an existing layout, can be difficult to change once they are implemented due to the significant investment required on items such as equipment. Therefore, it is imperative to make sure that the policy decisions relating to the organisation, method and work flow are made before the facilities are laid out rather than trying to fit these three into the layout. This is an important area of production and operations management since it is dealing with the capital equipment of the organisation which, in general, is difficult to relocate once it has been put into position. Muhlemann, Oakland and Lockyer (1992) explained that the plant layout process is rather complex, which cannot be set down with any finality, and one in which experience plays a great part. The author also explained that it is impossible for an organisation to design the perfect layout, however he discussed a number of criteria which should be followed to design a good layout, namely the following: Maximum Flexibility A good layout should be designed in such a way that modifications could rapidly take place to meet changing circumstances, and thus should be devised with the possible future needs of the operation in mind. Maximum Co-ordination The layout should be designed in such a way that entry into, and disposal from, any department or functional area should be carried out in the most convenient way to the issuing and recieving departments. Maximum use of volume The facility should be considered as cubic devices and maximum use is to be made of the volume available. This principle is useful in stores, where goods can be stored at considerable heights without causing any inconvenience. Maximum visibility The authors further insists that all the workers and materials should be readily observable at all times and that there should be no hidden places into which goods or information might get misplaced and forgotten. Organisations should be careful when they make use of partitioning or screening as these may introduce undesirable segregation which reduces the effective use of floor space. Maximum accessibility The machinery, equipment and other installations should not in any way obstruct the servicing and maintenance points, which should be readily accessible at all times. Obstructing certain service points such as electricity and water mains could hinder the production process in place. Minimum distance and Material handling All movements taking place within the plant should be both necessary and direct. Handling work does add the cost but does not increase the value, thus any unecessary movement should be avoided and if present, eliminated. It is best not to handle the material and information, however if this is necessary it should be reduced to a minimum by making use of appropriate devices. Inherent Safety All processes which might constitute a danger to either the staff or customers should not be accessible to the unauthorised. Fire exists should be clearly marked with uninhibited access and pathways should be clearly defined and uncluttered. Unidirectional Flow All materials which are being used in the production process should always flow in one direction, starting from the storage, passing through all processes and facilities, and finally resulting in the finished product which is later dispatched for storage or sold directly to the customer. Management Coordination Supervision and communication should be assisted by the location of staff and communication equipment in place within the chosen layout. 2.2 Quality Management There is a widespread acceptance that organisations view quality as an important strategic core competence and a vital competitive weapon which should be used to gain a competitive advantage at the expense of rivals. Several organisations have been able to reep a number of benefits, such as substanstial cost savings and higher revenues, after implementing a quality improvement process into their operations. Subsequently, this led them to invest substantial amounts of money yearly on implementing and sustaining quality programmes and intiatives. The American National Standards Institution (ANSI) and the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) define quality as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy given needs. Similarily, Feigenbaum (2005), who is an American quality control expert, has defined quality as the total composite product and service characteristics of marketing, engineering, manufacture, and maintenance through which the product and service in use will meet the expectation by the customer. Put simply, this refers to an organisations ability to manufacture a product or deliver a service which satisfy the customers requirements and needs, and which conform to specifications. Muhlemann, Oakland and Lockyer, authors of Production and Operations Management (1992), noted that organisations must be dedicated to the continous improvement of quality and must implement systematic control systems that are designed to prevent the production or delivery of products or services which do not conform to requirements. To facilitate this process, organisations should first set up a quality policy statement which describes their general quality orientation and which is used to assist as a framework for action. Once set up, top management would be required to: ensure that is it understood at all levels of the organisation; identify the needs of the organisations customers; evaluate the organisations ability to meet these needs; make sure that all the materials and services supplied fit the required standards of efficiency and performance; continously train the workforce for quality improvement; assess and monitor the quality management systems in place. 2.2.1 Quality Control and Assurance in the Conversion Process Ray Wild (2002) has noted that the capability of the conversion process directly influences the degree to which the product or service conforms to the given specification. If the conversion process is capable of producing products or services at the specified level, then the products or services are provided at the desired quality level. Once the specification of the output is known and an appropriate process is available, management must ensure that the output will conform to the specification. In order to achieve this objective Ray Wild (2002) has defined three different stages which are outlined in figure 2.1; each discussed below. Figure 2.: The stages, processes and procedures of quality control and assurance Essentials of Operations Management by Ray Wild (2002) Control of Inputs Before accepting any items as inputs, organisations must make sure that they conform to the required specifications and standards. Normally, before items are supplied to an organisation, they are subjected to some form of quality control by the supplier. The organisation might also ask its suppliers for information about the quality of the items whilst they are being prepared, ask for a copy of the final inspection documentation, or ask a third party such as an insurance company to make sure that all the items supplied conform to the required quality standards. Even so, organisations still find the need to inspect the items supplied once they are recieved and before they are inserted into the conversion process. This inspection can be carried out by either inspecting every item recieved from suppliers, or by making use of the acceptance sampling procedure, which consists of taking a random sample from a larger batch or lot of material to be inspected. Organisations might also make use of the vendor rating procedure whereby suppliers are rated by taking into account a number of quality related factors such as the percentage of acceptable items recieved in the past, the quality of the packaging, and the price. Control of Process All manufacturing organisations must make sure that appropriate inspection is carried out during operations to ensure that defective items do not proceed to the next operations, and also to predict when the process is most likely to produce faulty items so that preventive adjustments could be adopted (Ray Wild 2002). The quality control of the production process is facilitated by making use of control charts, which convey whether the process looks as though it is performing as it should, or alternatively if it is going out of control. One of the benefits of this procedure is that it helps management to take action before problems actually take place. Ray Wild (2002) also notes that organisations should establish procedures for the selection and inspection of items which are used in the conversion process, for the recording and analysis of data, scrapping of defectives, and for feedback of information. Control of Outputs Organisations must ensure that the qulity inspection of output items is carried out effectively since any undetected defective items would be passed on to the customer. The inspection of output items is normally carried out by making use of a sampling procedure, such as acceptance sampling, or by carrying out exhaustive checks. Ray Wild (2002) notes that it is vital for an organisation to have in place suitable procedures designed for the collection and retention of inspection data, for the correction, replacement or further examination of defective items, and for the adjustment or modification of either previous inspection or processing operations in order to eliminate the production of defective items. 2.2.2 HACCP Nowadays, the food industry is responsible of producing safe products and also for conveying in a transparent manner how the safety of food is being planned, controlled and assured. In order to do so, organisations in the food industry need a system which will ensure that food operations are designed to be safe and that potential hazards are taken into account (Mitchell, 1992). One such system is the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points which is a scientific and systematic method used to assure food safety, and a tool for the development, implementation and management of effective safety assurance procedures (Ropkins and Beck, 2000). The HACCP is known to be one of the best methods used for assuring product safety and is considered as a prerequisite for food manufacturing companies who wish to export their products into international markets. The objective of the HACCP system is to guarantee that the safe production of food by implementing a quality system which covers the complete food production chain, from the promary sector up to the final consuming of the product (Fai Pun and Bhairo-Beekhoo, 2007). It is capable of analysing the potential hazards in a food operation, identifying the points in the operation where the hazards may take place, and deciding which of these may be harmful to consumers (Mitchell, 2002). These points, which are referred to as the critical control points, are continously monitored and remedial action is effected if any of these points are not within safe limits. The HACCP is the system of choice in the management of food safety; one which is highly promoted by the food safety authorities in the United States, Canada and European Union. 2.3 Just-In-Time Scheduling 2.3.1 Scheduling in Manufacturing Decision making with regards to scheduling has become a very important factor in manufacturing as well as in service industries. Scheduling is a decision making process whereby limited resources are allocated to specific tasks over time in order to produce the desired outputs at the desired time (Psarras and Ergazakis, 2003). This process helps organisations to allocate their resources properly, which would further enable them to optimise their objectives and achieve their goals. A number of functions, conveyed in figure 2.2, must be performed whilst scheduling and controlling a production operation. Figure 2.: Functions performed in scheduling and controlling a production operation Adopted from the journal,Production scheduling in ERP systems, by Psarras Ergazakis (2003) In manufacturing systems, scheduling is highly dependent on the volume and variety mix of the manufacturing system itself. Mass process-type systems, which normally make use of a flow (product) layout where a standard item is produced in high volumes, make use of specialised equipment dedicated to achieve an optimal flow of work throughout the system (Greasly, 2006). Greasly notes that this is very important since all items follow the same sequence of operations. One of the most important objectives of a flow system is to make sure that production is kept at an equal rate in each production that takes place. This could be ensured by making use of the line balancing technique, which makes sure that the output of each production stage is equal and that all resources all fully utilised (Greasly, 2006). 2.3.2 Just-In-Time The Just-In-Time Philosophy The just-in-time philosophy originated from the Japanese auto maker Toyota after Taiichi Ohno came up with the Toyota Production System whose aim was to interface manufacturing more closely with the companys customers and suppliers. This particular philosophy is an approach to manufacturing which seeks to provide the right amount of material when it is required, which in turn leads to the reduction of work-in-progress inventories and aims to maximise productivity within the production process (Singh and Brar, 1991). The authors, Slack, Chambers and Johnston, of Operations Management (2001) defined the JIT philosophy as a disciplined approach to improving overall productivity and elimination of waste. They also state that it provides for the necessary quantity of parts at the right quality, at the right time and place, while using a minimum amount of facilities, equipment, materials and human resources. Thus, put simply the JIT system of production is one based on the philosophy of to tal elimination of waste, which seeks the utmost rationality in the way production is carried out. Bicheno (1991) further states that JIT aims to meet demand instantaneously, with perfect quality and no waste. In order to achieve this, an organisation requires a whole new approach in how it operates. Harrison (1992) identified three important issues as the core of JIT philosophy, namely the elimination of waste, the involvement of everyone and continous improvement. The following is a brief description of these three key issues (adapted from Operations Management by Andrew Greasly, 2006). Eliminate Waste Waste may be defined as any activity which does not add value to the operation. Ohno (1995) and Toyota have identified seven types of waste, which apply in many different types of operations, in both manufacturing and service industries. All of these types of wastes are displayed in figure 2.3 below. The involvement of everyone Organisations that implement a JIT system are able to create a new culture where all employees are encouraged to continously improve by coming up with ideas for improvements and by performing a range of functions. In order to involve employees as much as possible, organisations would have to provide training to staff in a wide range of areas and techniques, such as Statistical Process Control and more general problem solving techniques (Andrew Greasley 2002). Figure 2.: Types of wastes present in different types of operations Operations Management by Andrew Greasly (2002) Continuous Improvement Slack and Johnston (2001) note that JIT objectives are often expressed as ideals. Futhermore, Greasly (2002) states that through this philosophy, organisations would be able to get to these ideals of JIT by a continuous stream of improvements over time. The Benefits of Just-In-Time According to Russell and Taylor (2003), after fives years from implementing JIT a number of U.S. manufacturers were able to benefit from 90 percent reductions in manufacturing cycle time, 70 percent reductions in inventory, 50 percent reductions in labour costs, and 80 percent reductions in space requirements. These results are not achieved by each and every organisation that implements a JIT system, however JIT does provide a wide range of benefits, including: Reduced inventory Improved quality Lower costs Reduced space requirements Shorter lead time Increased productivity Greater flexibility Better relations with suppliers Simplified scheduling and control activities Better use of human resources Increased capacity More product variety 2.4 Health and Safety Management The International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) define occupational health as the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations; the prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; and the placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychological capabilities. Many countries have introduced legislation which requires employers to manage the health and safety of their employees, and others who might be affected (Waring, 1996). To honour health and safety legislation, organisations have found it necessary to introduce active programmes of accident prevention. The preparation of a properly though-out health and safety policy, which is continously monitored, could dramatically reduce or eliminate injuries and damage to health (Muhlemann, Oakland and Lockyer, 1992). 2.4.1 Responsibilities for Safety All employees in an organisation should be active in creating and maintaining healthy and safe working conditions which are aimed to avoid accidents. Once a health and safety policy is established in an organisation, roles and responsibilities should be allocated within the management structure (Muhlemann, Oakland and Lockyer, 1992). As with other areas such as quality and production within an organisation, health and safety would only be able to progress successfully if all employees are fully co-operative and committed in doing so. A number of organisations have encouraged this total involvement by creating safety representitives, committees, and group discussions whereby all employees in a particular unit meet periodically for discussions about safety (Muhlemann, Oakland and Lockyer, 1992). 2.4.2 Planning for Safety Systematic planning is required to ensure effective planning for health and safety in all workplaces. A health and safety policy should be part of a continous review process which has no tolerance for accidents. This could only take place if the organisation in question adopts a strategy of never-ending improvement (Muhlemann, Oakland and Lockyer, 1992). It should set the scene from the top with regards to top management beliefs, intentions, priorities and requirement from managers and workforce (Waring, 1996). The overall plan should be made up of the basic elements conveyed in figure 2.4 below.

Individuality in Whitmans Song of Myself Essay -- Song of Myself Essa

Individuality in Whitman's Song of Myself During a lecture in 1907, William James said "the philosophy which is so important in each of us is not a technical matter; it is our more or less dumb sense of what life honestly means. It is only partly got from books; it is our individual way of just seeing and feeling the total push and pressure of the cosmos" (Bartlett 546) Individuality has been a prevalent theme in every type of literature for quite some time. Whether it is a character discovering his/her individuality or the author expressing his, literature is full of distinctness. The term individuality changes meaning with each person it meets. That is what makes the dynamic word so great. Throughout particular works read this semester, individuality has been the foundation for several of them. Walt Whitman takes his newfound ideas and Quaker background and introduces American Literature to a totally different meaning of individuality in "Song of Myself." Whitman's radical ideas of individualism have a great deal to do with his Quaker background. The Quaker religion is one in which the authority was Inner Light. "Whitman himself was not only personally familiar with, but deeply impressed by, a religion whose only authority was the Inner Light" (Canoy 481). The Inner Light is a special influence, which made Whitman's poetry unique. This certain influence did such things as guide Whitman down his soul searching path as well as help him define within himself the characteristics of an individual. In section fifteen of "Song of Myself," Whitman discusses people from every class and every profession. He goes on to say "the young fellow drives the express-wagon... love him though I do not know him;" (2753). ... ...either hasten their own delivery, not resist it" (2767). Would it really be that bad to be an individualist instead of conforming to the crowd? I do not think so. Works Cited *Bartlett, John. Bartlett's Familiar Quotations. Boston: Little,Brown and Company,1992. *Canby,Henry Seidel, Johnson, Thomas H., Ludwig,Richard M., Spiller, Robert E., Thorp, Willard. Literary History of the United States. New York: The MacMillian Company, 1963. *Franklin, Benjamin. Autobiography and Poor Richards almanacks. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. 3rd ed. Ed. Paul Lauter.Boston, NewYork: Houghton Mifflin,1998. *Renyolds, David S., Walt Whitman's America-A Cultural Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995. *Whitman, Walt. Song of Myself. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. 3rd ed. Ed, Paul Lauter. Boston,NewYork: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Individuality in Whitman's Song of Myself Essay -- Song of Myself Essa Individuality in Whitman's Song of Myself During a lecture in 1907, William James said "the philosophy which is so important in each of us is not a technical matter; it is our more or less dumb sense of what life honestly means. It is only partly got from books; it is our individual way of just seeing and feeling the total push and pressure of the cosmos" (Bartlett 546) Individuality has been a prevalent theme in every type of literature for quite some time. Whether it is a character discovering his/her individuality or the author expressing his, literature is full of distinctness. The term individuality changes meaning with each person it meets. That is what makes the dynamic word so great. Throughout particular works read this semester, individuality has been the foundation for several of them. Walt Whitman takes his newfound ideas and Quaker background and introduces American Literature to a totally different meaning of individuality in "Song of Myself." Whitman's radical ideas of individualism have a great deal to do with his Quaker background. The Quaker religion is one in which the authority was Inner Light. "Whitman himself was not only personally familiar with, but deeply impressed by, a religion whose only authority was the Inner Light" (Canoy 481). The Inner Light is a special influence, which made Whitman's poetry unique. This certain influence did such things as guide Whitman down his soul searching path as well as help him define within himself the characteristics of an individual. In section fifteen of "Song of Myself," Whitman discusses people from every class and every profession. He goes on to say "the young fellow drives the express-wagon... love him though I do not know him;" (2753). ... ...either hasten their own delivery, not resist it" (2767). Would it really be that bad to be an individualist instead of conforming to the crowd? I do not think so. Works Cited *Bartlett, John. Bartlett's Familiar Quotations. Boston: Little,Brown and Company,1992. *Canby,Henry Seidel, Johnson, Thomas H., Ludwig,Richard M., Spiller, Robert E., Thorp, Willard. Literary History of the United States. New York: The MacMillian Company, 1963. *Franklin, Benjamin. Autobiography and Poor Richards almanacks. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. 3rd ed. Ed. Paul Lauter.Boston, NewYork: Houghton Mifflin,1998. *Renyolds, David S., Walt Whitman's America-A Cultural Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995. *Whitman, Walt. Song of Myself. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. 3rd ed. Ed, Paul Lauter. Boston,NewYork: Houghton Mifflin, 1998.

Enzymes in Brewing Industry :: essays papers

Enzymes in Brewing Industry Bioengineering Research Paper Enzymes are catalysts or proteins that are produced by a living cell, but in process are independent of the cell itself. There are two types of enzymes i.e 1) Cell Independent enzymes 2) Non-enzymic enzymes Enzymes are long chains of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. They exist in all living cells, usually controlling the metabolic process whereby nutrients are converted into energy. Enzymes are also catalyst, this mean that enzymes can speed up chemical processes that would normally move very slowly. Enzymes unfortunately don’t last forever they have limited stability or lifespan when they have completed their function in the chemical reaction. Science shows that enzymes work on raw material. Fruit, cereal, milk, beer or wood are some typical products for enzymatic conversion. Enzymes are specific, they usually break down or synthesize one particular compound, and in some cases enzymes limit their actions to specific bonds in the compound with in which they react. An example gluconases is one of the many enzymes used in beer brewing. This enzyme is used in industrial applications of brewing beer and is a very efficient catalyst. It breaks down the wheat and converts the carbohydrates into sugars that speed up the reaction in the aspect of the beer’s fermentation. Enzymes need certain types of conditions to operate, these conditions are usually mild in the areas of temperature and acidity. Many enzymes function around 30Â º- 70Â ºC and their acidity are usually around neutral(ph 7). Enzymes are very important to industrial processes, enzymes they are energy saving and also protect the lifespan of equipment used in processes and also having to buy special equipment resistant to heat, pressure or corrosion. Industrial enzymes can be produced in an ecological way, one of the main ways enzymes can be produced industrially is to culture enzymes in vats. Man has been exploiting enzymes in nature unknowingly for centuries. Also for thousands of years the beer brewing processes of many countries has relied heavily on barley malt. In this period of time barley was malted without brewers understanding what happen to the barley during the malting process. The idea back then was good beer couldn’t be made without malted barley. The unknown

Case Study: Tracey Essay

Transitioning to adulthood can be stressful and challenging for all, but for those diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and their caregivers transitioning to adulthood can provoke feeling of uncertainty or even fear. People with ASD function at different levels and require varying degrees of care. There should be an individualized educational plan (IEP) established by age 16 containing postsecondary goals related to training, education, employment, and independent living skills along with the transition services needed to assist in reaching those goals referred to as individualized transition plan (ITP) (Heward, 2013). Defining the needs of young adults with ASD should start with listening to the individual and helping him or her plan for the life he or she wants. When establishing an ITP, goals in education/training, employment and independent living; type of support needed on a job; residential alternatives; and interventions for any behavioral problems should be addressed . Tracey is a twenty-one-year-old student diagnosed with ASD who can have difficulties with transitions and requires that her routine be predictable. Tracey’s goals are to attend college, work in an office and share an apartment with a school friend when she graduates. Tracey reads at a second grade level and will need extensive support from educators in order to achieve her goal of receiving a postsecondary education. Tracey’s educational curriculum should use a functional skills approach that will help her master critical skills for use in home, community, school, and work settings (Snell & Brown, 2006). Tracey will complete a technical training program that will include learning work behaviors and job skills that will be useful in an office work environment. It will be essential to coordinate communication between the school and community based service providers in order to identify potential employers. Tracey will sample different job tasks within an office environmen t taking advantage of her friendly disposition and ability to follow directions when  they are paired with pictures to help her understand the steps in completing more complicated tasks. Job tasks may include office maintenance, delivering messages, sorting and organizing material, and offering assistance to other personnel. Tracey is able to complete her daily living skills relatively independently but needs reminders to choose appropriate clothing and change her clothes on a regular basis. Her parents will provide positive reinforcement and implement a self-management intervention plan to encourage Tracey’s appropriate behaviors. Tracey is frequently impulsive which sometimes results in grabbing and even pushing another peer. An important aspect of transitioning is to address challenging behaviors through the use of behavioral strategies. Tracey will practice conflict resolution skills by learning to communicate her feelings and practicing relaxation techniques during stressful situations. In an effort to increase Tracey’s independence she will enter the workforce while receiving appropriate training. As Tracey enters the workforce she will require su pported employment because she has never been employed. She will be receiving functional skills training that will prepare her with specific job skills required to work in an office as she desires. Heward (2009) indicates â€Å"The individual placement model of supported employment consists of developing jobs with employers in the community, systematically assessing clients’ job preferences, carefully placing employees in jobs they want, implementing intensive job site training and advocacy, building systems of natural supports on the job site, monitoring client performance, and taking a systematic approach to long-term job retention† (p. 539). This type of supported employment is the best approach for Tracey because no two people with ASD are alike; employment should capitalize on Tracey’s strengths, abilities and interests. In this type of employment Tracey will receive ongoing support services while on the job from a job coach that will provide intensive on-site job training and support, which will be modified over time as she becomes more successful at completing her job tasks. It is important that the job coach gradually reduce the time spent providing direct training to Tracey in order to: avoid disruptions in the workplace, keep Tracey from interacting with coworkers without disabilities and have Tracey become too dependent on the job coach keeping her from developing problem solving skills and taking responsibility for her own actions (Heward, 2013). Tracey’s training/support should focus on how to get to and from work, scheduling, following instructions (supported by pictures), interactions with coworkers, money management and self-advocacy. Tracey’s goal is to live in an apartment with a college friend. Supported living is designed to foster an individual’s integration to the community as he or she works toward his or her personal goals. A supported living model is suited for Tracey because she has established basic life skills and does not have significant levels of challenging behaviors but still requires assistance in some areas. An apartment cluster houses people with disabilities while having another nearby apartment for a support person or staff member (Heward, 2013). This type of living arrangement will offer Tracey flexibility in the amount of support she receives. Again, support will be adjusted as Tracey becomes more independent and fluent with her everyday living skills. A daily schedule will be provided for Tracey to remind her of things like hygiene routine, personal care (picking and changing her clothes), and household chores. Heward (2013) suggests â€Å"to facilitate social integration, people without disabilities may also occupy some apartments in an apartment cluster† (p. 5450). Autism Living and Working (ALAW) provides supervised living with home ownership opportunities to adults with autism by focusing on each individual’s personal preferences, strengths, deficits, and sensory-motor requirements, ALAW works to provide the necessary residential accommodations and vocational supports to enable the person to participate more fully in work and life in the community (ALAW, 2014). All accommodations are specifically tailored to meet an individual’s needs and preferences across their lifetime. What is most beneficial of programs like that offered by ALAW is the help-to-do rather than the do-for attitude, where Tracey can continue to learn and develop new skills but most importantly she will find consistency, structure, and predictability. Tracey’s impulsivity must be addressed in order for her to be successful both in a professional and a personal setting. Behavior problems serve as a form of communication that has a function in the person who displays it. When Tracey grabs or pushes another peer she can be seeking attention in order to express her frustration when something is no longer predictable. For example if Jane does not want to do what Tracey wants her to do she will push her getting the attention of others that will  in turn interrupt or stop the activity that is frustrating Tracey (creating a predictable event for Tracey). This consequence also serves as reinforcement, making the unwanted behavior stronger. Tracey will learn new ways to communicate her frustrations. In order to have Tracey understand the consequences of her behavior (grabbing and pushing) she will need to understand and recognize what triggers the behaviors, known as antecedents. An intervention strategy to help prevent the behavior from occurring can include avoiding large crowds, avoiding exposure to long delays, and allowing Tracey to take frequent breaks during difficult tasks. Tracey will also learn replacement behaviors like organizational skills that will keep her from becoming frustrated when faced with multiple tasks and learn to control angry outbursts; instead of grabbing or pushing she wi ll learn to say stop and request a break. Those around Tracey will need to learn how to respond differently to Tracey’s behavior by redirecting her to another activity or prompting her to use an alternative skill, and providing corrective feedback. There will be a direct assessment used to collect behavior data in order to determine the effectiveness of the interventions. Tracey will be observed in her natural environment, including her work place, school and home. Antecedents, behaviors, and consequence patterns will be observed noting how frequent the behaviors occur, how long they last and the intensity of the behavior. Observations will be made with current strategies and with new strategies to determine effectiveness. Transitioning to adulthood for youth with ASD presents unique challenges but with the appropriate support a better quality of life can be achieved. It is important to include Tracey in the planning of her daily activities in order to increase predictability, to be specific when setting expectations for her at the beginning of each activity and to use pictures instructions to make her daily routines understandable. Peers and coworkers without disabilities may have concerns regarding how to treat Tracey or how to communicate effectively with her; their concerns must be addresses with specific and clear instructions regarding Tracey’s communication system. Those near her will be taught how to appropriately respond to Tracey’s unwanted behaviors. Not only will having these skills make them feel more at ease around Tracey but it will also make them valuable assets in Tracey’s training and development. Keeping in mind Tracey’s personal goals in  education/training, employment and living arrangements allows for an easier more successful transition into independent living specifically designed with her stre ngths and abilities in mind. References Autism Living and Working (ALAW). (2014). Self-determined housing. Retrieved from http://www.autismlivingworking.org/content/self-determined-housing Heward, W. L. (2013). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Snell, M. E. & Brown, F. (2006). Instruction of Students with Severe Disabilities (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall